In recent years, Bosnia and Herzegovina has seen a consistent increase in the rate of Internet absorption along with a continuous extension of broadband access across urban and rural areas. As a potential EU candidate country, Bosnia has recently developed a burgeoning drive to advance the country’s digital and cyber capabilities in line with those of the European Union; ‘smart growth’ is notably included as one of the national priorities under the 2015 Strategic Framework. That said, the institutional, regulatory, and operational framework that would enable the realisation of this ambition is still nascent and the progress in many policy areas is undermined by the complexity of the distribution of powers between the central government and two entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. In 2017, Bosnia formally adopted the Policy of Electronic Communications of Bosnia and Herzegovina 2017-2021, which is largely aligned with the Digital Agenda of Europe [x]. This vision of a Bosnian digital society is a key milestone for the country’s emerging cyber diplomatic apparatus as it clearly identifies the foundational pillars of the country’s ICT ecosystem, which in turn will assist in bringing it into closer alignment with European cyber priorities.

Nigeria is Africa’s largest economy, with a total GDP of $432.3 billion, 13.85% of which comes from the country’s budding ICT sector [x]. Over the past decade, Nigeria has seen an extraordinary surge in digital entrepreneurship (particularly e-commerce) and mobile internet usage, both fuelled by an increase in telecom investments and smartphone purchases; this has led to a rise in internet penetration from 20% in 2009 to 50% in 2021 [x][x]. Nigeria is gradually emerging as Africa’s main ICT investment destination, hosting over 55 active tech hubs [x]. Meanwhile, in October 2021, the country was the first in Africa to launch a national cryptocurrency [x]. The rapid acceleration of Nigeria’s digital transformation, however, comes at the cost of increased cybersecurity demands. A 2020 survey showed that 86% of Nigerian companies had fallen prey to cyberattacks over the course of the year [x]; this was the second-highest percentage worldwide and the highest in Africa. Nigeria also reported the highest number of data leakages globally [x]. Current Nigerian priorities – outlined in the 2020-2030 Digital Strategy – include laying down the regulatory and infrastructural groundwork to facilitate digital development, as well as enabling public confidence in the digital economy. This means that cyber issues are becoming increasingly relevant for Nigerian diplomacy, especially with regard to digital trade and cybercrime.

At the first substantive session of the 2021-2025 UNGGE, recalling its status as a potential candidate of the EU, Bosnia and Herzegovina aligned itself with the EU’s statement that the existing corpus of international law, notably the UN Charter, international humanitarian law, and international human rights law, apply in cyberspace in its entirety. In particular, this includes the principle of state sovereignty, sovereign equality, the settlement of disputes by peaceful means, the provision of the use of force non-intervention in the internal affairs of other states, and the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms as principles of international law that are applicable to states use of ICTs in cyberspace. [x] Nevertheless, it has consistently refrained from aligning itself with the EU position in a number of key resolutions at the United Nations, including resolutions A/73/27 and A/74/29.

Nigeria’s stance on international law is primarily filtered through its traditional concern over the growing proliferation of global cybercrime. Nigerian diplomats have emphasised the need for a proper legal framework that reflects the ideals and current trends within the African region. Less has been said, however, about the application of international law in cyberspace more generally. Nigeria voted in favour of UN resolution 73/27 that established the Open-Ended Working Group (OEWG), indicating at least some partial alignment with the Sino-Russian camp.

At the first substantive session of the 2021-2025 UNGGE, Bosnia and Herzegovina aligned itself with the EU’s position that the previous UNGGE and OEWG reports, including corresponding UNGA resolutions adopted by consensus, form the unequivocal basis for “any further discussions on the position, role, and implementation of the voluntary non-binding norms, rules and principles of state behaviour in cyberspace (norms)” [x]. In 2018, however, it voted in favour of Russian-sponsored resolution A/73/27, which launched the Open-Ended Working Group (OEWG) format.

Nigeria has been an active participant in the OEWG, contributing to the 2021 consensus report while primarily aligning itself with the intergovernmentalist camp. Under the auspices of the OEWG, Nigeria supported a new norm proposal on refraining from the weaponisation and offensive uses of ICTs, echoing similar suggestions from India, Iran and Cuba.

The country has no overarching cybersecurity strategy. Elements of strategic contemplation over cybersecurity can be found within the Criminal Code, which criminalises critical infrastructure damage (including that of information systems) as an act of terrorism. The 2015-2020 Strategy for Prevention and Combating Terrorism reiterates an objective laid out in earlier documents regarding the setup of a dedicated national CERT that will develop and implement monitoring and response mechanisms vis-a-vis the misuse of the Internet for terrorist purposes. Bosnia and Herzegovina has been exploring potential avenues of cooperation with NATO, especially in relation to common solutions to security challenges in the area of cyber defence [x], while Bosnian scientists have also participated in the NATO SPS Programme. Finally, as a member state of the OSCE, Bosnia and Herzegovina is required to implement the OSCE’s 16 Confidence Building Measures (CBMs) as adopted by the OSCE Permanent Council.

With Nigeria currently first on the list of the most attacked countries in Africa, the country has traditionally been a strong advocate of the need for increased capacity building efforts. Nigerians have placed particular emphasis on demand-driven, needs-based and non-discriminatory approaches. At the OEWG, Nigerian delegates also emphasised the importance of gender equality and bridging the gender divide. In 2021, Nigeria published the updated National Cybersecurity Policy and Strategy, which lays out an ambitious plan for ensuring a ‘comprehensive approach’ to critical information infrastructure (CNII) protection and resilience. Nigerian priorities include establishing an effective collaborative partnership with CNII owners and operators as well as the multistakeholder community, addressing cross-sectoral dependencies and setting specific national priorities considering resource availability, known capability gaps and emerging trends and cybersecurity risks. The Strategy also promises the design of a Critical National Information Infrastructure Protection Plan to incorporate clear risk management procedures and mitigation mechanisms, while also calling for the creation of a national CERT (ngCERT) to coordinate sectorial incident management responses. Meanwhile, the UK has emerged as an important capacity building partner for Nigeria, which is due to benefit from the UK’s £22 million investment package that aims to support resilience in Africa and the Indo-Pacific.

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a party to the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime, officially acceding in 2006. As of 2019, however, domestic legislation at the state level had only been partially harmonised with Budapest provisions [x]. The country voted against the Russian-sponsored UN resolution that launched the institutional procedure for a new legal instrument on international cybercrime cooperation. Bosnian law enforcement regularly cooperates with Europol and is due to open negotiations for a cooperation agreement with Eurojust [x].

The Nigerian 2020-2030 National Digital Strategy, which is in line with the African Union Digital Transformation Strategy 2020-2030, emphasises the significance of adopting ‘collaborating approaches’ to fighting cybercrime; it specifically notes that ‘cybersecurity is not a local issue and it requires collaboration with relevant institutions around the globe’. At the moment of writing, Nigeria has not signed either the Council of Europe-sponsored Budapest Convention or the African Union-sponsored Malabo Convention. The Budapest Convention is nevertheless described as a ‘key treaty’ and ‘efforts are underway’ in relation to Nigeria’s accession; meanwhile, the Strategy also touches upon the importance of adopting the Malabo Convention. At the OEWG, Nigeria has highlighted the need for developing capacity building initiatives at the local level, particularly in relation to law enforcement agencies and cybercrime investigations. In 2019, the country voted in favour of UNGA resolution 74/247, which established an Ad Hoc Committee to draw up an international convention on cybercrime; Nigeria currently holds a vice-chair position on the Committee. The Nigerian position paper prior to the launch of the first substantive session noted the ‘urgent need to define and sanction criminal conduct in cyberspace, improve synergy in trans-national policing capabilities, improve procedural tools and reform/enhance international cooperation, whilst respecting human rights’. Nigerian objectives include the consolidation of established baselines, the criminalisation of offences in a technology-neutral manner, the establishment of capacity building and technical assistance mechanisms and finally the promotion of already existing multilateral instruments such as the Budapest Convention, UNTOC and UNCAC. Furthermore, in its capacity as a member of ECOWAS, Nigeria has participated in several socialisation-based capacity building initiatives, including the OCWAR-C project, the GLACY+ workshops and the African Forum on Cybercrime (organised by the African Union).

Published with thanks to Dr Nnenna Ifeanyi-Ajufo for her valuable contributions.